1. Define Computer Architecture.Computer Architecture deals with the structure and behavior of a computer including the information formats.
2. Define processor clock and clock rate Processor clock: Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called processor clock,the clock defines regular time interval called clock cycle. Clock Rate: Clock rate,R=1/p cycles/sec(hz) Where p is length of one clock cycle
3. .Define MIPS Rate and Throughput Rate. MIPS: One alternative to time as the metric is MIPS(Million Instruction Per Second) MIPS=Instruction count/(Execution time x1000000). This MIPS measurement is also called Native MIPS todistinguish it from some alternative definitions of MIPS. MIPS Rate: The rate at which the instructions are executed at a given time. Throughput: The total amount of work done in a given time. Throughput rate: The rate at which the total amount of work done at a given time.
4. What is MFLOPS?What is its significant? Popular alternative to execution time is Million Floating-point Operations Per Second ,abbreviated megaflops orMFLOPS but always pronounced “megaflops”.The formula for MFLOPS is simply the definition of the acronym:
MFLOPS=Number of floating-point operations in a program/(Execution timex1000000).
A MFLOPS rating is dependent on the program.Different programs require the execution of different number of floatin point operations.Since MFLOPS were intended to measure floating-point performance,they are not applicable outside that range.Compilers,as an extreme example,have aMFLOPS rating near 0 no matter how fast the machine is,because compilers rarely use floating-point arithmetic.
5. Define CPI The term ClockCyclesPerInstruction Which is the average number of clock cycles each instruction takes to execute, is often abbreviated as CPI. CPI= CPU clock cycles/Instruction count.
6. State and explain the performance equation? Suppose that the average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine instruction is S, where each basic step is completed in one clock cycle. If the clock cycle rate is R cycles per second, the program execution time is given by T = (N x S) / R This is often referred to as the basic performance equation.
7. What do you mean by aligned and unaligned address? aligned address: · In the case of 32bit word length, natural word boundaries occur at address 0,4,8…………the word locations have aligned address. · In general, words are said to be aligned in memory if they begin at a byte address that is a multiple of the number of bytes in a word. · FOR EXAMPLE: If the word length is 16(2bytes), aligned words begin at byte address 0, 2, 4 unaligned address: · There is no fundamental reason why words cannot begin at an arbitrary byte address. The words are said to have unaligned address. While the most common case is to use aligned address, some computers allow the unaligned word address
8. What is the assembly language notation? Give example. To represent machine instructions and program. we use assembly Language format. For example: The statement specifies an instruction that causes the transfer described above, from memory location LOC to processor registerR1. Move LOC, R1 The contents of LOC are unchanged by the execution of this instruction, but the old contents of register R1 are overwritten. The second example of adding two numbers contained in processor registers R1 and R2 and placing their sum in R3 can be specified by the assembly language statement and the assembly language statement can specify R2 and placing their sum inR3. Add R1, R2, R3.
9. What is straight –line sequencing? Process of fetching and executing an instruction; one at a time in order of increasing address with the help of information in program counter.
10. Specify the sequence of operation involved when an instruction is executed. a) Instruction Fetch b) Instruction Decode c) Operand Fetch d) Execute
11. what are Condition Codes (CC)? Explain the use of them. Condition Codes are the list of possible conditions that can be tested during conditional instructions.CC is used to test the condition (<, =,>). Based on this result, Jump instructions move to specified loop.CC flags represent the value of processor that keeps the information about the results of various operations for use by conditional branches
12. What are addressing modes? Ø The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction is referred to as addressing modes. Ø It is a rule for interpreting or translating addresses field of an instruction into an effective address from where the operand is actually referenced.
13. Define absolute addressing? Absolute addressing is defined as the operand is in a memory location. The address of this location is given explicitly in the instruction. It may also called as direct addressing. Assembler syntax: LOC Addressing function: EA=LOC Where, EA=Effective address
14. Define index mode? Index mode is defined as the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant value to the contents of a register. Symbolic Representation, X(Ri) Where, X is a constant value Ri is the name of the register. Addressing function, EA=[Ri]+X
15. What are Number Notations? When dealing with numerical values, it is often convenient to use the familiar decimal notation. These values are stored in the computer as binary numbers. In some situations it is more convenient to specify the binary patterns directly. Most assemblers allow numerical value to be specified in different ways. For example the number 93 which is represented by the 8-bit binary number 01011101. If this value is to be used as an immediate operand, it can be given as a decimal number. ADD #93, R1 or as a binary number identified by a prefix symbol such as a percent sign ADD #%01011101, R1 Binary numbers can be written more compactly as Hexadecimal. The hex notation of a first ten pattern 0000,0001,……..1001 are represented by the digit 0,1,2……..9 as in BCD .The remaining six 4-bit patterns are represented as A,B,C,D,E,F. a hex representation is identified by a dollar sign prefix ADD #$5D, R1
16. List out the methods used to improve system performance. The methods used to improve system performance are Processor clock Basic Performance Equation Pipelining Clock rate Instruction set Compiler
17. What is Byte Addressability? Byte Addressability is used for assigning successive memory address to successive memory location. This type of assigning is used in modern computers. One byte=8 bits. Ex:32bits Address:0,4,8....
18. What is meant by Bid-Endian and Little Endian.
The name big-Endian is used when lower byte addresses are used for the most significant bytes (the left most bytes) of the word. The name little-Endian is used when lower byte addresses are used for the less significant bytes (the right most bytes) of the word.
19. What is meant by condition codes. List out the types.1. Negative(N)
2. Zero(Z)
3. Overflow(O)
4. Carry(C)
20. List out the additional modes used by the processor.AutoIncrement :The Effective Address of the operand is the contents of a register specified in the instruction. After accessing the operand,the contents of a register are automatically Incremented to point to the next item in a list.
EG: (R1)+
AutoDecrement: The content of a register specified in the instruction are first automatically decremented and are then used as the effective address of the operand
EG: -(R1)
21. What do you mean by Register transfer? Instruction execution involves a sequence of steps in which data are transferred from one register to another. For each register, two control signals are used to place the contents of that register on the bus or to load the data on the bus in to the register. To transfer the contents of the register R1 to R4 (1)Enable the output of R1 by setting R1out to 1. This places the contents of R1 on the process bus. (2)Enable the input of Register R4 by setting R4in to 1.This loads data from processor bus in to Register R4.
2. Define processor clock and clock rate Processor clock: Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called processor clock,the clock defines regular time interval called clock cycle. Clock Rate: Clock rate,R=1/p cycles/sec(hz) Where p is length of one clock cycle
3. .Define MIPS Rate and Throughput Rate. MIPS: One alternative to time as the metric is MIPS(Million Instruction Per Second) MIPS=Instruction count/(Execution time x1000000). This MIPS measurement is also called Native MIPS todistinguish it from some alternative definitions of MIPS. MIPS Rate: The rate at which the instructions are executed at a given time. Throughput: The total amount of work done in a given time. Throughput rate: The rate at which the total amount of work done at a given time.
4. What is MFLOPS?What is its significant? Popular alternative to execution time is Million Floating-point Operations Per Second ,abbreviated megaflops orMFLOPS but always pronounced “megaflops”.The formula for MFLOPS is simply the definition of the acronym:
MFLOPS=Number of floating-point operations in a program/(Execution timex1000000).
A MFLOPS rating is dependent on the program.Different programs require the execution of different number of floatin point operations.Since MFLOPS were intended to measure floating-point performance,they are not applicable outside that range.Compilers,as an extreme example,have aMFLOPS rating near 0 no matter how fast the machine is,because compilers rarely use floating-point arithmetic.
5. Define CPI The term ClockCyclesPerInstruction Which is the average number of clock cycles each instruction takes to execute, is often abbreviated as CPI. CPI= CPU clock cycles/Instruction count.
6. State and explain the performance equation? Suppose that the average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine instruction is S, where each basic step is completed in one clock cycle. If the clock cycle rate is R cycles per second, the program execution time is given by T = (N x S) / R This is often referred to as the basic performance equation.
7. What do you mean by aligned and unaligned address? aligned address: · In the case of 32bit word length, natural word boundaries occur at address 0,4,8…………the word locations have aligned address. · In general, words are said to be aligned in memory if they begin at a byte address that is a multiple of the number of bytes in a word. · FOR EXAMPLE: If the word length is 16(2bytes), aligned words begin at byte address 0, 2, 4 unaligned address: · There is no fundamental reason why words cannot begin at an arbitrary byte address. The words are said to have unaligned address. While the most common case is to use aligned address, some computers allow the unaligned word address
8. What is the assembly language notation? Give example. To represent machine instructions and program. we use assembly Language format. For example: The statement specifies an instruction that causes the transfer described above, from memory location LOC to processor registerR1. Move LOC, R1 The contents of LOC are unchanged by the execution of this instruction, but the old contents of register R1 are overwritten. The second example of adding two numbers contained in processor registers R1 and R2 and placing their sum in R3 can be specified by the assembly language statement and the assembly language statement can specify R2 and placing their sum inR3. Add R1, R2, R3.
9. What is straight –line sequencing? Process of fetching and executing an instruction; one at a time in order of increasing address with the help of information in program counter.
10. Specify the sequence of operation involved when an instruction is executed. a) Instruction Fetch b) Instruction Decode c) Operand Fetch d) Execute
11. what are Condition Codes (CC)? Explain the use of them. Condition Codes are the list of possible conditions that can be tested during conditional instructions.CC is used to test the condition (<, =,>). Based on this result, Jump instructions move to specified loop.CC flags represent the value of processor that keeps the information about the results of various operations for use by conditional branches
12. What are addressing modes? Ø The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction is referred to as addressing modes. Ø It is a rule for interpreting or translating addresses field of an instruction into an effective address from where the operand is actually referenced.
13. Define absolute addressing? Absolute addressing is defined as the operand is in a memory location. The address of this location is given explicitly in the instruction. It may also called as direct addressing. Assembler syntax: LOC Addressing function: EA=LOC Where, EA=Effective address
14. Define index mode? Index mode is defined as the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant value to the contents of a register. Symbolic Representation, X(Ri) Where, X is a constant value Ri is the name of the register. Addressing function, EA=[Ri]+X
15. What are Number Notations? When dealing with numerical values, it is often convenient to use the familiar decimal notation. These values are stored in the computer as binary numbers. In some situations it is more convenient to specify the binary patterns directly. Most assemblers allow numerical value to be specified in different ways. For example the number 93 which is represented by the 8-bit binary number 01011101. If this value is to be used as an immediate operand, it can be given as a decimal number. ADD #93, R1 or as a binary number identified by a prefix symbol such as a percent sign ADD #%01011101, R1 Binary numbers can be written more compactly as Hexadecimal. The hex notation of a first ten pattern 0000,0001,……..1001 are represented by the digit 0,1,2……..9 as in BCD .The remaining six 4-bit patterns are represented as A,B,C,D,E,F. a hex representation is identified by a dollar sign prefix ADD #$5D, R1
16. List out the methods used to improve system performance. The methods used to improve system performance are Processor clock Basic Performance Equation Pipelining Clock rate Instruction set Compiler
17. What is Byte Addressability? Byte Addressability is used for assigning successive memory address to successive memory location. This type of assigning is used in modern computers. One byte=8 bits. Ex:32bits Address:0,4,8....
18. What is meant by Bid-Endian and Little Endian.
The name big-Endian is used when lower byte addresses are used for the most significant bytes (the left most bytes) of the word. The name little-Endian is used when lower byte addresses are used for the less significant bytes (the right most bytes) of the word.
19. What is meant by condition codes. List out the types.1. Negative(N)
2. Zero(Z)
3. Overflow(O)
4. Carry(C)
20. List out the additional modes used by the processor.AutoIncrement :The Effective Address of the operand is the contents of a register specified in the instruction. After accessing the operand,the contents of a register are automatically Incremented to point to the next item in a list.
EG: (R1)+
AutoDecrement: The content of a register specified in the instruction are first automatically decremented and are then used as the effective address of the operand
EG: -(R1)
21. What do you mean by Register transfer? Instruction execution involves a sequence of steps in which data are transferred from one register to another. For each register, two control signals are used to place the contents of that register on the bus or to load the data on the bus in to the register. To transfer the contents of the register R1 to R4 (1)Enable the output of R1 by setting R1out to 1. This places the contents of R1 on the process bus. (2)Enable the input of Register R4 by setting R4in to 1.This loads data from processor bus in to Register R4.
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